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Retributive Justice: Concept, Foundations, and Critique

Retributive Justice: Concept, Foundations, and Critique I. Introduction Justice has been one of the most contested and enduring concerns of philosophy, law, and politics. Among the various models of justice—distributive, procedural, restorative, and retributive—the retributive approach occupies a particularly prominent role in the history of legal and moral thought. Retributive justice is grounded in the idea that wrongdoing demands a proportionate response: the offender deserves to suffer a penalty that matches the gravity of the Read more

By Tsvety, ago

Challenges to the Rule of Law

Challenges to the Rule of Law The rule of law is one of the cornerstones of modern democratic societies. At its core, it embodies the principle that no individual, institution, or government authority is above the law, and that laws must be applied consistently, fairly, and transparently. It provides the structural foundation upon which individual rights, social order, and political legitimacy rest. Yet, despite its significance, the rule of law is constantly subject to erosion Read more

By Tsvety, ago

Equity and All the Ways Law Understands It

All the Ways Law Understands the Term Equity The concept of equity is one of the richest and most multifaceted terms in legal thought. Unlike technical terms that bear a single, fixed definition, equity straddles diverse fields of law—jurisprudence, private law, public law, and even comparative constitutional discourse—where it assumes different meanings and functions. Historically rooted in ancient philosophy and adapted into legal institutions over centuries, equity denotes a cluster of ideas: fairness, justice beyond Read more

By Tsvety, ago

Homicide Degrees in Criminal Law 101

Homicide Degrees in Criminal Law Homicide is one of the most severe crimes within any legal system, for it involves the unlawful killing of a human being and directly threatens the sanctity of human life. Yet, despite its gravity, the law does not treat all homicides as identical. Instead, legal systems distinguish between various degrees of homicide, reflecting the underlying principles of justice, proportionality, and moral culpability. These distinctions recognize that the context, intent, and Read more

By Tsvety, ago

Qualifying Circumstances in Criminal Law

Qualifying Circumstances in Criminal Law I. Introduction Criminal law seeks to maintain public order, ensure justice, and deter harmful conduct by assigning sanctions proportionate to the gravity of the offense. Yet, not all crimes of the same legal classification bear the same weight in terms of culpability. A killing committed in cold blood, premeditated and cruel, cannot be judged on equal terms with one carried out in sudden passion. Likewise, a theft committed by a Read more

By Tsvety, ago

Separation of Property as a Legal Process

Separation of Property as a Legal Process I. Introduction Why separation of property? Property relations between spouses constitute one of the most sensitive and complex aspects of family law. Marriage often merges not only personal lives but also financial and material interests, which can give rise to disputes or inequalities if not clearly regulated. The separation of property is a legal process designed to establish, recognize, or restore the independence of each spouse’s assets, thereby Read more

By Tsvety, ago

Judicial Bias: Concept, Manifestations, and Legal Implications

Judicial Bias: Concept, Manifestations, and Legal Implications I. Introduction What is judicial bias? The principle of impartiality is the cornerstone of judicial legitimacy. Courts derive their authority not only from constitutional frameworks but also from the public perception that judges are neutral arbiters of justice. When impartiality is compromised—whether in appearance or in fact—the legitimacy of judicial decision-making is put into question. Judicial bias, therefore, is not merely a flaw in individual judgment but a Read more

By Tsvety, ago

The Legal Foundations of NATO

The Legal Foundations of NATO I. Introduction The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) stands as one of the most enduring and significant military alliances in modern history. Established in the aftermath of the Second World War, NATO has played a central role in shaping international security and collective defense arrangements for over seven decades. Its legal foundations are rooted in international treaty law, principles of collective security, and evolving interpretations of sovereignty and defense obligations Read more

By Tsvety, ago

Counterfeit Notes as a Legal Problem

Counterfeit Notes as a Legal Problem I. Introduction Counterfeit notes—fraudulent imitations of legal tender—pose a serious legal, economic, and social challenge in modern societies. The issue is as old as money itself, but it has become increasingly sophisticated with the advent of digital printing technologies and globalized criminal networks. The presence of counterfeit currency undermines public trust in financial systems, disrupts economies, and raises complex legal issues regarding detection, prevention, and punishment. From a legal Read more

By Tsvety, ago